Inclusive Net-Zero Framework for Assessing Urban Transport Policies and Programmes—Case of India
Authors
-
Darshini Mahadevia
School of Arts & Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Ahmedabad 380009, India
-
Saumya Lathia
*
Good Governance Fellowship, Urban Development & Housing Department, Government of Gujarat, Sardar Patel Institute of Public Administration (SPIPA), Ahmedabad 380009, India
-
Talat Munshi
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Copenhagen Climate Centre, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55121/tdr.v4i1.1011Abstract
India’s Net-Zero commitment, announced at the COP26 held in Glasgow, underscores the critical role of urban transport in achieving long-term climate goals. This paper examines the adequacy of existing transport policies and programmes at both macro (national and state) and city levels in advancing Net-Zero readiness. This paper critiques the conventional Avoid–Shift–Improve framework and introduces the ERASI framework (Enhance, Retain, Avoid, Shift, Improve) as a more contextually relevant paradigm for Indian cities and the Global South. It then, through a systematic assessment of the policy documents at all the levels, identifies structural gaps, fragmented approaches, and misalignments across governance scales. The papers findings highlight that Indian cities possess a comparatively sustainable urban form, yet policies inadequately support integrated planning to sustain compact, mixed-use development, under-scoring the need for ‘Retain’ principles through coherent long-term strategies. Indian cities also record low mobility of specific populations, which requires the ‘Enhance’ option. The paper also highlights the absence of coherent strategies linking macro and local interventions, insufficient integration of inclusivity and transport justice, and the need for alignment between technological transitions and governance mechanisms. The paper also argues that achieving Net-Zero transport requires a reframing of urban transport policy that emphasizes equity, and coherence in existing frameworks.
Keywords:
Urban Transport, Net-Zero Transport, ASI Framework, Transport Policy, Global SouthReferences
[1] Government of India Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change, 2023. Net-Zero Emissions Target. Government of India: New Delhi, India. Available from: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1945472
[2] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2019. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision. United Nations: New York, NY, USA. Available from: https://population.un.org/wup/assets/WUP2018-Report.pdf
[3] International Energy Agency, 2023. Transitioning India’s Road Transport Sector: Realising Climate and Air Quality Benefits. International Energy Agency: Paris, France. Available from: https://www.iea.org/reports/transitioning-indias-road-transport-sector
[4] Mahadevia, D., Pathak, M., Lathia, S., et al., 2025. Sustainable and Inclusive Low-Carbon Transport Scenarios for Surat City, India. Carbon Footprints. 4(11). DOI: https://doi.org/10.20517/cf.2025.01
[5] Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India, 2020. National Urban Policy Framework—Strategic Intent. Government of India: New Delhi, India.
[6] The Hindu Centre for Politics and Public Policy, 2021. National Urban Transport Policy, 2014. Available from: https://www.thehinducentre.com/resources/article37702569.ece (cited 8 December 2025).
[7] Verma, M., 2015. Growing Car Ownership and Dependence in India and Its Policy Implications. Case Studies on Transport Policy. 3(3), 304–310. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2014.04.004
[8] Ahmad, S., Puppim de Oliveira, J.A., 2016. Determinants of Urban Mobility in India: Lessons for Promoting Sustainable and Inclusive Urban Transportation in Developing Countries. Transport Policy. 50, 106–114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2016.04.014
[9] Varghese, V., Adhvaryu, B., 2016. Measuring Overcrowding in Ahmedabad Buses: Costs and Policy Implications. Transportation Research Procedia. 17, 145–154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2016.11.070
[10] Jain, D., Tiwari, G. 2020. Gender and Income Based Variability in Travel Choices in Vishakhapatnam, India. Transportation Research Procedia. 48, 2870–2890.
[11] Goel, R., Oyebode, O., Foley, L., 2022. Gender Differences in Active Travel in Major Cities across the World. Transportation. 50(2), 733–749. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-021-10259-4
[12] Ek, K., Wårell, L., Andersson, L., 2021. Motives for Walking and Cycling When Commuting—Differences in Local Contexts and Attitudes. European Transport Research Review. 13(1), 46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12544-021-00502-5
[13] Wilbur Smith Associates, Ministry of Urban Development, 2008. Study on Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India. Wilbur Smith Associates; Ministry of Urban Development: New Delhi, India.
[14] Tiwari, G., Jain, D., 2012. Accessibility and Safety Indicators for All Road Users: Case Study Delhi BRT. Journal of Transport Geography. 22, 87–95. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.11.020
[15] Mahadevia, D., Lathia, S., Mukhopadhyay, C., 2023. Including SDGs in Low-Carbon Transport Scenarios: A Case of Udaipur. Eco Cities. 4(2), 2525. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54517/ec.v4i2.2525
[16] Mahadevia, D., Mukhopadhyay, C., Lathia, S., et al., 2023. The Role of Urban Transport in Delivering Sustainable Development Goal 11: Learning from Two Indian Cities. Heliyon. 9(9), e19453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19453
[17] Coelho, K., Mahadevia, D., Williams, G., 2020. Outsiders in the Periphery: Studies of the Peripheralisation of Low Income Housing in Ahmedabad and Chennai, India. International Journal of Housing Policy. 22(4), 543–569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19491247.2020.1785660
[18] Tiwari, G, Jain, D., Rao, K.R., 2015. Impact of Public Transport and Non-Motorised Transport Infrastructure on Travel Mode Shares, Energy, Emissions and Safety: Case of Indian Cities. Transportation Research Part D. 44, 277–291.
[19] Mahadevia, D., Lathia, S., Mukhopadhyay, C., 2024. SDG-Enabled Decarbonisation Transport Pathways for Mid-Sized Indian Cities. Global Social Challenges Journal. 3(3), 479–488. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1332/27523349Y2024D000000005
[20] Mahadevia, D., Lathia, S., 2025. Assessing National Transport Policies, and Projects for SDG Delivery—Case of Urban India. Sustainable Development Research. 7(4), 15–38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30560/sdr.v7n4p15
[21] Jarre, M., Noussan, M., Campisi, E., 2024. Avoid–Shift–Improve: Are Demand Reduction Strategies Under-Represented in Current Energy Policies? Energies. 17(19), 4955. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194955
[22] Zusman, E., Srinivasan, S., Dhakal, S., 2012. Low-Carbon Transport in Asia: Strategies for Optimizing Co-Benefits. Routledge: London, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203153833
[23] Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, 2016. Sustainable Urban Transport: Avoid–Shift–Improve (A–S–I). GIZ: Eschborn, Germany.
[24] Vásquez, B., Medimorec, N., 2025. Transport in the New NDCs 3.0. Available from: https://changing-transport.org/transport-in-the-new-ndcs-3-0/#:~:text=This%20summary%20analysis%20outlines%20findings%20from%20the%20first,of%20this%20project%2C%20please%20refer%20to%20this%20page (cited 8 December 2025).
[25] Creutzig, F., Jochem, P., Edelenbosch, O.Y., et al., 2015. Transport: A Roadblock to Climate Change Mitigation? Science. 350(6263), 911–912. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac8033
[26] Arup Group, Urban Transport Group, 2022. Equitable Future Mobility: Ensuring a Just Transition to Net-Zero Transport. Arup Group: London, UK; Urban Transport Group: Leeds, UK.
[27] Esztergar-Kiss, D., Braga Zagabria, C., 2021. Method Development for Workplaces Using Mobility Plans to Select Suitable and Sustainable Measures. Research in Transportation Business and Management. 40, 100544. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2020.100544
[28] Jelti, F., Allouhi, A., Tabet Aoul, K.A., 2023. Transition Paths towards a Sustainable Transportation System: A Literature Review. Sustainability. 15(21), 15457. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115457
[29] Song, Y., Preston, J., Ogilvie, D., 2017. New Walking and Cycling Infrastructure and Modal Shift in the UK: A Quasi-Experimental Panel Study. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 95, 320–333. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.11.017
[30] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2022. Climate Change 2022—Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157926
[31] Zimm, C., 2021. Improving the Understanding of Electric Vehicle Technology and Policy Diffusion across Countries. Transport Policy. 105, 54–66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.12.012
[32] Guzman, L.A., Hessel, P., 2022. The Effects of Public Transport Subsidies for Lower-Income Users on Public Transport Use: A Quasi-Experimental Study. Transport Policy. 126, 215–224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2022.07.016
[33] Pucher, J., Korattyswaroopam, N., Ittyerah, N., 2004. The crisis of public transport in India: Overwhelming needs but limited resources. Journal of public transportation. 7(4), 1–20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5038/2375-0901.7.4.1
[34] Munshi, T., 2003. Planning Public Transport for Ahmedabad City in India [Master’s Thesis]. International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation: Enschede, The Netherlands.
[35] Munshi, T., 2013. Built Form, Travel Behaviour and Low Carbon Development in Ahmedabad, India [PhD Thesis]. University of Twente: Enschede, The Netherlands.
[36] Saif, M.A., Zefreh, M.M., Torok, A., 2018. Public Transport Accessibility: A Literature Review. Periodica Polytechnica Transportation Engineering. 47(1), 36–43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3311/PPtr.12072
[37] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2021. Transport Strategies for Net-Zero Systems by Design. OECD Publishing: Paris, France.
[38] Patel, S.B., 2013. Life between Buildings—The Use and Abuse of FSI. Economic and Political Weekly. 48(6), 68–74.
[39] Kotharkar, R., Bahadure, P., 2020. Achieving compact city form through density distribution: Case of Indian cities. Journal of Urban Planning and Development. 146(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000529
[40] Goel, R., Mohan, D., 2020. Investigating the Association between Population Density and Travel Patterns in Indian Cities—An Analysis of 2011 Census Data. Cities. 100, 102656. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102656
[41] Demographia, 2023. World Urban Areas: 19th Annual Edition. Demographia: Belleville, IL, United States.
[42] Guha, A., Advani, M., Puria, K., et al., 2025. A Multidimensional Spectrum of Passenger Travel in Indian Cities. Sustainable Transport and Livability. 2(1), 2493834. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/29941849.2025.2493834
[43] U.S. Department of Transportation, 2024. Summary of Travel Trends: 2024 National Household Transport Survey. U.S. Department of Transportation: Washington, DC, USA.
[44] Eurostat, 2020. Passenger Mobility Statistics. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Passenger_mobility_statistics (cited 8 December 2025).
[45] Kundu, D., Sharma, P., Lahiri, B., et al., 2020. Delhi: A City of Diversity and Disparity. Centre for Sustainable, Healthy and Learning Cities and Neighbourhoods (SHLC): Glasgow, UK.
[46] Yasin, M.Y., Yusoff, M.M., Abdullah, J., et al., 2020. Is urban sprawl a threat to sustainable development? A review of characteristics and consequences. Geografia. 16(4). DOI: https://doi.org/10.17576/geo-2020-1604-05
[47] Tammaru, T., Sevtsuk, A., Witlox, F., 2023. Towards an Equity-Centred Model of Sustainable Mobility: Integrating Inequality and Segregation Challenges in the Green Mobility Transition. Journal of Transport Geography. 112, 103686. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2023.103686
[48] Will, M.-E., Cornet, Y., Munshi, T., 2020. Measuring Road Space Consumption by Transport Modes: Toward a Standard Spatial Efficiency Assessment Method and an Application to Rajkot City, India. Journal of Transport and Land Use. 13(1), 651–669. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.2020.1526
[49] Population Census, 2026. Rajkot Town Population Census 2011–2026. Available from: https://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/802501-rajkot-gujarat.html
Submit Manuscript
