Cultural Identity, Diversity Management Policies and Conflicts in Sudan

Authors

  • Jorge Carlos Naranjo Alcaid *

    Department of Education,Comboni College of Science and Technology, Port Sudan 33311, Sudan

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.55121/cci.v1i1.180

Keywords:

Intercultural Education, Conflict, Sudan, Cultural Heritage, Identity Policies, Diversity Managemen

Abstract

The ongoing war in Sudan has been qualified as the biggest humanitarian crisis in the world. Unfortunately, this conflict is the last one of a long and cruel series of civil wars. Among the several factors behind these conflicts, a very relevant one is the mismanagement of the cultural diversity of the country. While some scholars had analysed how ethnic relations in Sudan had an impact on the political problems, this study explores the opposite direction and outlines, with special focus on the educational policies of the XX and the XXI centuries, how the politics of imposing an identity on culturally diverse populations has tensioned the relation between the centre and the peripheries in the last decades. This tension also plays a paramount role in the ongoing civil war started on April 15, 2023. The attempt to build the national identity on the pillars of Arab culture and political Islam failed to create a shared cultural identity. The article analyzes that attempt in the framework of the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity created by Bennet, the classification of policies to deal with cultural management defined by Kymlicka and the concept of cultural identity as defined by Stuart Hall. Finnally, it proposes an intercultural approach to transform cultural heritage and education into an instrument of reconciliation and integration, and the multicultural reality of the country into a platform for a dialogue that produces a shared concept of identity and sustainable peace.

References

[1] UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), 2025. Human Development Report 2025: A matter of choice: People and possibilities in the age of AI. UNDP: New York, NY, USA.

[2] Madibbo, A.I., 2012. Conflict and the conceptions of identities in the Sudan. Current Sociology. 60(3), 302–319. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392111426194

[3] Deng F.M., 1995. Conflict of Identities in the Sudan. The Brookings Institution: Washington, DC, USA.

[4] Gore, P.W., 1993. Notes sur l’ethnicité et les relations ethniques au Soudan. Ëgypt Monde Arabe. 15–16, 259–269. DOI: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4000/ema.1105

[5] Portera, A., 2008. Intercultural education in Europe: Epistemological and semantic aspects. Intercultural Education. 19, 481–491.

[6] Cope, B., Kalantzis, M., 2009. “Multiliteracies”: New literacies, new learning. Pedagogies: An International Journal. 4, 164–195.

[7] Bennett, M., 1993. Towards ethnorelativism: A development model of intercultural sensitivity. In: Paige, M. (ed.). Education for the intercultural experience. Intercultural Press: Yarmouth, ME, USA. pp. 21–71.

[8] Kymlick, W., 2003. Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK.

[9] Hall, S., 1990. Cultural Identity and Diaspora. In: Rutherford, J., (Ed.), Identity: Community, Culture, Difference. Lawrence & Wishart: London, UK. pp. 222–237.

[10] Hashim, M.J., 2006. Islamization and Arabization of Africans as a Means to Political Power in the Sudan: Contradictions of Discrimination based on the Blackness of Skin and Stigma of Slavery and their Contribution to the Civil Wars. In: Bankie, B.F. & Mchombu, K. (eds,). Pan Africanism: Strengthening the Unity of Africa and its Diaspora. Gamsberg Macmillan: Windhoek. pp. 244–267.

[11] Komey, G.K., 2010. Land, Governance, Conflict and the Nuba of Sudan. James Currey: Oxford, UK.

[12] Assal, M., 2006. Sudan: Identity and conflict over natural resources. Development. 49, 101–105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.development.1100284

[13] Jok, K.M., 2012. Conflict of National Identity in Sudan, Academic Dissertation, Faculty of Arts, Department of World Cultures, University of Helsinki. Available from: https://helda.helsinki.fi/server/api/core/bitstreams/a0943a30-e654-4ca5-a3e4-65267019ac9b/content (cited 20 August 2024).

[14] Sharkey, H.J., 2008. Arab Identity and Ideology in Sudan: The Politics of Language, Ethnicity, and Race. African Affairs. 107(426), 21–43. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adm068

[15] Krotki, K.J., 1979. La population du Soudan au XIXe siècle et au début du XXe siècle. Annales de Démographie Historique. 165–194. Available from: https://www.persee.fr/doc/adh_0066-2062_1979_num_1979_1_1422 (cited 20 August 2024).

[16] Vantini, G., 2009. Rediscovering Christian Nubia. Nigrizia: Verona, Italy.

[17] Wilson, C., 1887. The Tribes of the Nile Valley, North of Khartoum. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 17, 3–25.

[18] Home Office, 2021. Country Policy and Information Note Sudan: Non-Arab Darfuris. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1028042/SDN_CPIN_Non-Arab_Darfuris.pdf (cited 20 August 2024).

[19] Vantini, G., 2005. La missione del cuore. I comboniani in Sudan nel ventesimo secolo. EMI: Bologna, Italy.

[20] Sanderson, L.M., 1962. Educational Development in the Southern Sudan, 1900–1948. Sudan Notes and Records. 43, 105–117

[21] Naranjo Alcaide, J.C., 2019. The Development of Catholic Schools in the Republic of Sudan. Social and Education History. 8(1), 83–111. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17583/hse.2019.3611

[22] Sanderson, L.M., 1963. A survey of material available for the study of educational development in the modern Sudan, 1900-1963. Sudan Notes and Records. 44, 69–81.

[23] Aḥmad Maḥjūb, M., 1934. Fī al-taʿlīm. Al-Fajr Newspaper. 471–477.

[24] Gizouli (-El), E.S.M., 1999. Higher Education in the Sudan 1898–1966. Khartoum University Press: Khartoum, Sudan.

[25] Warburg, G., 2003. Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in Sudan since the Mahdiyya. Hurst and Company: London, UK.

[26] Seri-Hersch, I., 2017. Education in Colonial Sudan, 1900–1957. In: Oxford Research Encyclopedias. Available from: http://africanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-12 (cited 20 August 2024).

[27] Abdelhay, A., Abu-Manga, A.-A., Miller, C., 2015. Language Policy and Planning in Sudan from Local Vernaculars to National Languages. In: Casciarri, B., Assal, M.A.M., Ireton, F. (eds.). Multidimensional Change in the Republic of Sudan (1989–2011). Reshaping Livelihoods, Conflicts and Identities, Berghahn: New York, NY, USA. pp. 263–280. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3167/9781782386179

[28] UNESCO, 2012. World Data on Education 2010/2011. Available from: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Sudan.pdf (cited 20 August 2024).

[29] Mahdī, F.Ṭ., 2006. Taqwim marḥala al-ta’līm al-asāsī fī wilāyat Al- Khartūm [Assessment of Basic Education at Khartoum State]. Jāmi’a Al-Khartūm lil-nashr: Khartoum, Sudan.

[30] Oliver, R., Volk, C., 1998. The Failure of Political Islam. Harvard University Press: Harvard, MA, USA.

[31] Hroub, K., 2011. Political Islam: Context Versus Ideology. Saqi Books: London, UK.

[32] EU, FMoGE, SOFRECO, 2015. Provision of Technical Assistance for the Support of the Implementation of the Primary Education Retention Programme (PERP) in the Sudan. European Union: Khartoum, Sudan.

[33] Wani Gore, P., 2002. Final report on: A comprehensive evaluation of the program of education in Archdiocese of Khartoum, including the School Feeding Program. Archdiocese of Khartoum: Khartoum, Sudan.

[34] Dulvy, E.N., El-Gammal, Y. A.A.; Rakotomalala, R.M.; et al., 2012. The status of the education sector in Sudan (Africa education country status report). Available from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/424741468129613991/The-status-of-the-education-sector-in-Sudan (cited 20 August 2024).

[35] Meskel, L., 2002. Negative Heritage and Past Mastering in Archaeology. Anthropological Quarterly. 3(75), 557–574.

[36] Norwegian Refugee Council, 2005. Profile of Internal Displacement: Sudan Compilation of the information available in the Global IDP Database of the Norwegian Refugee Council. Available from: https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4059b7044.pdf (cited 20 August 2024).

[37] De Waal, A., Flint, J., 2008. Darfur – A New History of a Long War (revised and updated). Zed Books: London, UK.

[38] Gikandi, H., 2020. Sudan’s troubled attempt at education reform. The World. Available from: https://theworld.org/stories/2021-07-26/sudan-s-troubled-attempt-education-reform (cited 20 August 2024).

[39] Prunier, G., 2007. Darfur the Ambiguous Genocide. Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY, USA.

[40] Human Rights Watch, 2004. Darfur Destroyed: Ethnic Cleansing by Government and Militia Forces in Western Sudan. Available from: http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/sudan0504full.pdf (cited 20 August 2024).

[41] Birkeland, N.M., Jennings, E., Rushing, E.J., 2012. Global Overview 2011, People internally displaced by conflict and violence. Available from: https://api.internal-displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/2012-global-overview-2011-global-en.pdf?_gl=1*19cxx4k*_ga*MTE4NzkzMzk4Mi4xNzQ5MDIxNzI0*_ga_PKVS5L6N8V*czE3NDkwMjE3MjQkbzEkZzAkdDE3NDkwMjE3MjQkajYwJGwwJGgw (cited 20 August 2024).

[42] Haggar, A., 2007. The Origins and Organization of the Janjawiid in Darfur. In: De Waal, A. (Ed.), War in Darfur and the Search for Peace. Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University and Justice Africa: Harvard, MA, USA.

[43] Rothbart, D., Adeeb, Y., 2016. Ideology and Cultural Violence in Darfur. African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes. Available from: https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/ideology-cultural-violence-darfur/ (cited 20 August 2024).

[44] Tubiana, J., 2022. Darfur after Bashir: Implications for Sudan’s Transition and for the Region. Available from: https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR508-Darfur-after-Bashir.pdf (cited 20 August 2024).

[45] United Nations Security Council, 2023. Sudan and South Sudan Security Council, 9416th Meeting. Available from: https://webtv.un.org/en/asset/k1d/k1doml6f09 (cited 20 August 2024).

[46] Abbas, R., 2024. A War for Sudan’s Identity: The Loss and Destruction of Culture and Heritage. The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy. Available from: https://timep.org/2024/04/15/a-war-for-sudans-identity-the-loss-and-destruction-of-culture-and-heritage/ (cited 20 August 2024).

[47] Gunter-Bassett, M., Bassett, H.F., Hanson, K., et al., 2023. Cultural Heritage Monitoring Lab Rapid Report: Damage to the Sudan National Museum (18 May 2023). DOI: https://doi.org/10.25573/data.22963304

[48] ICOMOS, 2023. ICOMOS Statement on Sudan. Available from: https://www.icomos.org/en/89-english-categories/home/124123-icomos-statement-on-sudan (cited 20 August 2024).

[49] ICOM, 2023. Solidarity call for Sudanese museums. Available from: https://icom.museum/en/news/solidarity-call-for-sudanese-museums/ (cited 20 August 2024).

[50] ICCROM, 2023. ICCROM-led workshop helps identify 77 at-risk heritage sites and collections amid the ongoing conflict in Sudan. International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property. Available from: https://www.iccrom.org/news/iccrom-led-workshop-helps-identify-77-risk-heritage-sites-and-collections-amid-commitment (cited 20 August 2024).

[51] Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research of Sudan, 2023. Available from: https://www.facebook.com/www.MOHE.GOV.SD (cited 20 August 2024).

[52] Sawahel, W, 2023. 104 HE institutions burned and vandalised, says ministry. University World News. African Edition. Available from: https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20230830182024830 (cited 20 August 2024).

[53] Miller, C., 2017. Language and ethnic statistics in 20th century Sudanese censuses and surveys. Hal Open Science. Available from: https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01544597v1 (cited 20 August 2024).

[54] World Population Review. Sudan. Available from https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/arabic-speaking-countries (cited 20 August 2024).

[55] World Bank. School Enrolment, Primary (%) Gross. Available from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.ENRR.MA?display=map&locations=SD (cited 20 August 2024).

[56] Garang, J., Khalid, M., 1987. John Garang Speaks. Kegan Paul International: London, UK.

[57] Stevens, R., 1976. The 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement and the Sudan’s Afro-Arab Policy. Journal of Modern African Studies. 2(14), 247–276.

[58] Deng, F., 1971. Tradition and Modernisation, A challenge for law among the Dinka of Sudan. Yale University Press: New Haven, CT, USA.

[59] Leturcq, J.-G., 2009. Heritage-making and Policies of Identity in the “Post-conflict Reconstruction” of Sudan. Égypte/Monde Arabe. 1(5–6), 295–328.

[60] Joint Assessment Mission for Sudan, 2005. Framework for Sustained Peace, Development and Poverty Reduction, Volume 3. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/sudan-jam-final-report-volume-iii-cluster-reports (cited 20 August 2024).

[61] Rilly, C., 2022. Meroitic Writing. In: Stauder, A., Wendrich, W., (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. University of California: Los Angeles, CA, USA.

[62] Congregation for Catholic Education, 2013. Educating to Intercultural Dialogue in Catholic Schools Living in Harmony for a Civilization of Love. Available from: https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccatheduc/documents/rc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20131028_dialogo-interculturale_en.html (cited 20 August 2024).

Downloads

Issue

Vol. 1 No. 1 (November 2024)

Section

Articles