Ecotoxicity of Petrogenic Plastic Particles in Fish: Implication for Human Health and Environmental Risk Assessment

Authors

  • Bwala Mathias Nzitiri *

    National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA), Borno State Field Office, Maiduguri 600233, Nigeria

    Department of Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University (ATBU), P.M.B. 0248, Bauchi 740272, Nigeria
  • Gaya Abalis Ezra

    Department of Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University (ATBU), P.M.B. 0248, Bauchi 740272, Nigeria
  • Nayaya Ahmad Jibrin

    Department of Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University (ATBU), P.M.B. 0248, Bauchi 740272, Nigeria
  • Buba Toma

    Department of Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University (ATBU), P.M.B. 0248, Bauchi 740272, Nigeria

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.55121/fds.v3i1.700

Keywords:

Microplastics, Nanoplastics, Sampling Microplastics, Health Risk, Aquatic Pollution

Abstract

Petrogenic plastics might fragment within the ecosystems into progressively smaller fragments classified by size as “macroplastics”, “mesoplastics”, “microplastics”, and “nanoplastics”. Petrogenic micro and nano plastics (MNPs) are ubiquitous in the ecosystems and form as a result of the ageing or the action of prevailing bio-environmental factors on the plastic materials or direct release of MNPs in the environment. Fish and other aquatic organisms may ingest MNPs from their polluted environment. This review aims to explore the multifaceted interactions between MNPs, other pollutants, and the potential threats to human health. MNPs can translocate from the digestive tract to the kidney, liver, and other body tissues, causing several toxicological effects in fish and other organisms in the food chain. MNPs can induce hepatic and renal toxicity, causing the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic potentials in organisms. MNPs can also act as channels via which contaminants and pollutants such as heavy metals, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), organophosphate and organochlorine pesticides, etc, might pass to the organisms from different environmental media to organisms in their environment. The ingestion of fish and other contaminated aquatic bio-resources might affect human health via cancer or non-cancer risk effects. MNPs can also impact negatively on the human genetic makeup, inhibit cell viability, induce inflammatory responses, and cause minor morphological alterations. Different equipment is used to detect and characterize MNPs from the environmental matrix.

References

[1] Lusher, A., Hollman, P., Mendoza-Hill, J., 2017. Microplastics in Fisheries and Aquaculture: Status of Knowledge on Their Occurrence and Implications for Aquatic Organisms and Food Safety. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Rome, Italy. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a9a298e0-9db6-4769-beac-37325be3e280/content

[2] Barnes, D.K.A., Galgani, F., Thompson, R.C., et al., 2009. Accumulation and Fragmentation of Plastic Debris in Global Environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364(1526), 1985–1998. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0205

[3] Horton, A.A., Walton, A., Spurgeon, D.J., et al., 2017. Microplastics in Freshwater and Terrestrial Environments: Evaluating the Current Understanding to Identify the Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Priorities. Science of The Total Environment. 586, 127–141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.190

[4] McIlwraith, H.K., Hataley, E., Rochman, C.M., 2021. Towards a Management Strategy for Microplastic Pollution in the Laurentian Great Lakes - Monitoring (Part 1). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 80(10), cjfas-2023-0022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2023-0022

[5] The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2016. Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics: Global Lessons and Research to Inspire Action and Guide Policy Change. UNEP: Nairobi, Kenya. Available from: https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/marine-plastic-debris-and-microplastics-global-lessons-and-research-inspire

[6] Triebskorn, R., Braunbeck, T., Grummt, T., et al., 2019. Relevance of Nano- and Microplastics for Freshwater Ecosystems: A Critical Review. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 110, 375–392. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.11.023

[7] Graham, P.M., Pattinson, N.B., Bakir, A., et al., 2024. Determination of Microplastics in Sediment, Water, and Fish Across the Orange-Senqu River Basin. Water Research. 266, 122394. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122394

[8] Naidoo, T., Smit, A., Glassom, D., 2016. Plastic Ingestion by Estuarine Mullet Mugil Cephalus (Mugilidae) in an Urban Harbour, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. African Journal of Marine Science. 38(1), 145–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2989/1814232X.2016.1159616

[9] Zhang, K., Shi, H., Peng, J., et al., 2018. Microplastic Pollution in China’s Inland Water Systems: A Review of Findings, Methods, Characteristics, Effects, and Management. Science of The Total Environment. 630, 1641–1653. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.300

[10] Atamanalp, M., Köktürk, M., Parlak, V., et al., 2022. A New Record for the Presence of Microplastics in Dominant Fish Species of the Karasu River Erzurum, Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29(5), 7866–7876. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16243-w

[11] Avio, C.G., Gorbi, S., Milan, M., et al., 2015. Pollutants Bioavailability and Toxicological Risk from Microplastics to Marine Mussels. Environmental Pollution. 198, 211–222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.12.021

[12] Tasneem, A.T., 2021. Assessing the Sources of Microplastic Pollution in the Maumee Watershed: A Geospatial Approach [Master’s Thesis]. University of Toledo: Toledo, OH, USA. Available from: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/ws/send_file/send?accession=toledo1628538423149272&disposition=inline

[13] Lai, H., Liu, X., Qu, M., 2022. Nanoplastics and Human Health: Hazard Identification and Biointerface. Nanomaterials. 12(8), 1298. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12081298

[14] The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP), 2016. Sources, Fate and Effects of Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Part Two of a Global Assessment. GESAMP: London, UK. Available from: http://www.gesamp.org/site/assets/files/1275/sources-fate-and-effects-of-microplastics-in-the-marine-environment-part-2-of-a-global-assessment-en.pdf

[15] Andrady, A.L., 2015. Persistence of Plastic Litter in the Oceans. In: Bergmann, M., Gutow, L., Klages, M. (Eds.). Marine Anthropogenic Litter. Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 57–72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_3

[16] Dris, R., Imhof, H., Sanchez, W., et al., 2015. Beyond the Ocean: Contamination of Freshwater Ecosystems with (micro-)plastic Particles. Environmental Chemistry. 12(5), 539–550. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/EN14172

[17] Driedger, A.G.J., Dürr, H.H., Mitchell, K., et al., 2015. Plastic Debris in the Laurentian Great Lakes: A Review. Journal of Great Lakes Research. 41(1), 9–19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2014.12.020

[18] Eerkes-Medrano, D., Thompson, R.C., Aldridge, D.C., 2015. Microplastics in Freshwater Systems: A Review of the Emerging Threats, Identification of Knowledge Gaps and Prioritisation of Research Needs. Water Research. 75, 63–82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.012

[19] Besseling, E., Quik, J.T.K., Sun, M., et al., 2017. Fate of Nano- and Microplastic in Freshwater Systems: A Modeling Study. Environmental Pollution. 220, 540–548. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.001

[20] Politikos, D.V., Ioakeimidis, C., Papatheodorou, G., et al., 2017. Modeling the Fate and Distribution of Floating Litter Particles in the Aegean Sea (E. Mediterranean). Frontiers in Marine Science. 4, 191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00191

[21] Klein, S., Worch, E., Knepper, T.P., 2015. Occurrence and Spatial Distribution of Microplastics in River Shore Sediments of the Rhine-Main Area in Germany. Environmental Science & Technology. 49(10), 6070–6076. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00492

[22] Free, C.M., Jensen, O.P., Mason, S.A., et al., 2014. High-Levels of Microplastic Pollution in a Large, Remote, Mountain Lake. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 85(1), 156–163. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.001

[23] Dai, Z., Zhang, H., Zhou, Q., et al., 2018. Occurrence of Microplastics in the Water Column and Sediment in an Inland Sea Affected by Intensive Anthropogenic Activities. Environmental Pollution. 242, 1557–1565. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.131

[24] Mohamed, N.H.N., Obbard, J.P., 2014. Microplastics in Singapore’s Coastal Mangrove Ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 79(1–2), 278–283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.11.025

[25] Leslie, H.A., Brandsma, S.H., Van Velzen, M.J.M., et al., 2017. Microplastics En Route: Field Measurements in the Dutch River Delta and Amsterdam Canals, Wastewater Treatment Plants, North Sea Sediments and Biota. Environment International. 101, 133–142. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.018

[26] Vianello, A., Boldrin, A., Guerriero, P., et al., 2013. Microplastic Particles in Sediments of Lagoon of Venice, Italy: First Observations on Occurrence, Spatial Patterns and Identification. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 130, 54–61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2013.03.022

[27] Heo, N.W., Hong, S.H., Han, G.M., et al., 2013. Distribution of Small Plastic Debris in Cross-Section and High Strandline on Heungnam Beach, South Korea. Ocean Science Journal. 48(2), 225–233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12601-013-0019-9

[28] Lee, J., Lee, J.S., Jang, Y.C., et al., 2015. Distribution and Size Relationships of Plastic Marine Debris on Beaches in South Korea. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 69(3), 288–298. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0208-x

[29] Markic, A., Niemand, C., Bridson, J.H., et al., 2018. Double Trouble in the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre: Increased Plastic Ingestion by Fish in the Oceanic Accumulation Zone. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 136, 547–564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.09.031

[30] Kılıç, E., Yücel, N., 2022. Microplastic Occurrence in the Gastrointestinal Tract and Gill of Bioindicator Fish Species in the Northeastern Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 177, 113556. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113556

[31] Reboa, A., Cutroneo, L., Consani, S., et al., 2022. Mugilidae Fish as Bioindicator for Monitoring Plastic Pollution: Comparison Between a Commercial Port and a Fishpond (north-Western Mediterranean Sea). Marine Pollution Bulletin. 177, 113531. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113531

[32] Ferreira, G.V.B., Barletta, M., Lima, A.R.A., et al., 2016. Plastic debris contamination in the life cycle of Acoupa weakfish ( Cynoscion acoupa ) in a tropical estuary. ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil. 73(10), 2695–2707. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsw108

[33] Rummel, C.D., Löder, M.G.J., Fricke, N.F., et al., 2016. Plastic Ingestion by Pelagic and Demersal Fish from the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 102(1), 134–141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.11.043

[34] Foekema, E.M., De Gruijter, C., Mergia, M.T., et al., 2013. Plastic in North Sea Fish. Environmental Science & Technology. 47(15), 8818–8824. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es400931b

[35] Jabeen, K., Su, L., Li, J., et al., 2017. Microplastics and Mesoplastics in Fish from Coastal and Fresh Waters of China. Environmental Pollution. 221, 141–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.055

[36] Güven, O., Gökdağ, K., Jovanović, B., et al., 2017. Microplastic Litter Composition of the Turkish Territorial Waters of the Mediterranean Sea, and Its Occurrence in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Fish. Environmental Pollution. 223, 286–294. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.01.025

[37] Biginagwa, F.J., Mayoma, B.S., Shashoua, Y., et al., 2016. First Evidence of Microplastics in the African Great Lakes: Recovery from Lake Victoria Nile Perch and Nile Tilapia. Journal of Great Lakes Research. 42(1), 146–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2015.10.012

[38] Sutton, R., Mason, S.A., Stanek, S.K., et al., 2016. Microplastic Contamination in the San Francisco Bay, California, USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 109(1), 230–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.077

[39] Steer, M., Cole, M., Thompson, R.C., et al., 2017. Microplastic Ingestion in Fish Larvae in the Western English Channel. Environmental Pollution. 226, 250–259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.062

[40] Sanchez, W., Bender, C., Porcher, J.-M., 2014. Wild Gudgeons (Gobio Gobio) from French Rivers Are Contaminated by Microplastics: Preliminary Study and First Evidence. Environmental Research. 128, 98–100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2013.11.004

[41] Welden, N.A.C., Cowie, P.R., 2016. Environment and Gut Morphology Influence Microplastic Retention in Langoustine, Nephrops Norvegicus. Environmental Pollution. 214, 859–865. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.03.067

[42] Paul, D.K., Ramesh, Y., 2022. Microplastic in Inland Water Fish in India: Presence and Fate. Techno World. 37–53. Available from: https://www.socialresearchfoundation.com/upoadreserchpapers/4/491/220112044646microplastic%20in%20inland%20water%20fish%20in%20india_%20presence%20and%20fate.docx.pdf

[43] Davidson, K., Dudas, S.E., 2016. Microplastic Ingestion by Wild and Cultured Manila Clams (Venerupis Philippinarum) from Baynes Sound, British Columbia. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 71(2), 147–156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-016-0286-4

[44] Wegner, A., Besseling, E., Foekema, E.M., et al., 2012. Effects of Nanopolystyrene on the Feeding Behavior of the Blue Mussel ( Mytilus Edulis L.). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 31(11), 2490–2497. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.1984

[45] Lu, Y., Zhang, Y., Deng, Y., et al., 2016. Uptake and Accumulation of Polystyrene Microplastics in Zebrafish ( Danio Rerio ) and Toxic Effects in Liver. Environmental Science & Technology. 50(7), 4054–4060. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00183

[46] Batel, A., Linti, F., Scherer, M., et al., 2016. Transfer of Benzo[ a ]pyrene from Microplastics to Artemia Nauplii and Further to Zebrafish Via a Trophic Food Web Experiment: CYP1A Induction and Visual Tracking of Persistent Organic Pollutants. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 35(7), 1656–1666. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3361

[47] Mattsson, K., Hansson, L.-A., Cedervall, T., 2015. Nano-Plastics in the Aquatic Environment. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts. 17(10), 1712–1721. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EM00227C

[48] Pedà, C., Caccamo, L., Fossi, M.C., et al., 2016. Intestinal Alterations in European Sea Bass Dicentrarchus Labrax (Linnaeus, 1758) Exposed to Microplastics: Preliminary Results. Environmental Pollution. 212, 251–256. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.083

[49] De Sá, L.C., Luís, L.G., Guilhermino, L., 2015. Effects of Microplastics on Juveniles of the Common Goby (Pomatoschistus Microps): Confusion with Prey, Reduction of the Predatory Performance and Efficiency, and Possible Influence of Developmental Conditions. Environmental Pollution. 196, 359–362. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.10.026

[50] Oliveira, M., Ribeiro, A., Hylland, K., et al., 2013. Single and Combined Effects of Microplastics and Pyrene on Juveniles (0+ Group) of the Common Goby Pomatoschistus Microps (Teleostei, Gobiidae). Ecological Indicators. 34, 641–647. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.06.019

[51] Yin, L., Chen, B., Xia, B., et al., 2018. Polystyrene Microplastics Alter the Behavior, Energy Reserve and Nutritional Composition of Marine Jacopever (Sebastes Schlegelii). Journal of Hazardous Materials. 360, 97–105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.07.110

[52] Iheanacho, S.C., Odo, G.E., 2020. Neurotoxicity, Oxidative Stress Biomarkers and Haematological Responses in African Catfish (Clarias Gariepinus) Exposed to Polyvinyl Chloride Microparticles. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology. 232, 108741. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108741

[53] Prata, J.C., Da Costa, J.P., Lopes, I., et al., 2020. Environmental Exposure to Microplastics: An Overview on Possible Human Health Effects. Science of The Total Environment. 702, 134455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455

[54] Karami, A., Golieskardi, A., Keong Choo, C., et al., 2017. The Presence of Microplastics in Commercial Salts from Different Countries. Scientific Reports. 7(1), 46173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46173

[55] Ensign, L.M., Cone, R., Hanes, J., 2012. Oral Drug Delivery with Polymeric Nanoparticles: The Gastrointestinal Mucus Barriers. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 64(6), 557–570. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2011.12.009

[56] Salim, S.Y., Kaplan, G.G., Madsen, K.L., 2014. Air Pollution Effects on the Gut Microbiota: A Link Between Exposure and Inflammatory Disease. Gut Microbes. 5(2), 215–219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4161/gmic.27251

[57] Powell, J.J., Thoree, V., Pele, L.C., 2007. Dietary Microparticles and Their Impact on Tolerance and Immune Responsiveness of the Gastrointestinal Tract. British Journal of Nutrition. 98(S1), S59–S63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114507832922

[58] Forte, M., Iachetta, G., Tussellino, M., et al., 2016. Polystyrene Nanoparticles Internalization in Human Gastric Adenocarcinoma Cells. Toxicology in Vitro. 31, 126–136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2015.11.006

[59] Rochman, C.M., Tahir, A., Williams, S.L., et al., 2015. Anthropogenic Debris in Seafood: Plastic Debris and Fibers from Textiles in Fish and Bivalves Sold for Human Consumption. Scientific Reports. 5(1), 14340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14340

[60] Hidalgo-Ruz, V., Gutow, L., Thompson, R.C., et al., 2012. Microplastics in the Marine Environment: A Review of the Methods Used for Identification and Quantification. Environmental Science & Technology. 46(6), 3060–3075. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es2031505

[61] Wirnkor, V.A., Ebere, E.C., Ngozi, V.E., 2019. Microplastics, an Emerging Concern: A Review of Analytical Techniques for Detecting and Quantifying Microplatics. Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal. 2(2), 13–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24200/amecj.v2.i2.57

[62] Shim, W.J., Hong, S.H., Eo, S.E., 2017. Identification Methods in Microplastic Analysis: A Review. Analytical Methods. 9(9), 1384–1391. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C6AY02558G

[63] Zada, L., Leslie, H.A., Vethaak, A.D., et al., 2018. Fast Microplastics Identification with Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy. 49(7), 1136–1144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.5367

[64] Frias, J.P.G.L., Sobral, P., Ferreira, A.M., 2010. Organic Pollutants in Microplastics from Two Beaches of the Portuguese Coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 60(11), 1988–1992. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.07.030

[65] Rios, L.M., Moore, C., Jones, P.R., 2007. Persistent Organic Pollutants Carried by Synthetic Polymers in the Ocean Environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 54(8), 1230–1237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022

[66] Teuten, E.L., Rowland, S.J., Galloway, T.S., et al., 2007. Potential for Plastics to Transport Hydrophobic Contaminants. Environmental Science & Technology. 41(22), 7759–7764. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es071737s

[67] Karapanagioti, H.K., Siavalas, G., Kalaitzidis, S., et al., 2009. Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydro Carbons (PAHs) in the Gulf of Aliveri. In Proceedings of the 9th National Greek Symposium on Oceanography and Fishery, Athens, Greece, 16 April 2009; pp. 251–255.

[68] Hirai, H., Takada, H., Ogata, Y., et al., 2011. Organic Micropollutants in Marine Plastics Debris from the Open Ocean and Remote and Urban Beaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 62(8), 1683–1692. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.06.004

[69] Fisner, M., Taniguchi, S., Moreira, F., et al., 2013. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Plastic Pellets: Variability in the Concentration and Composition at Different Sediment Depths in a Sandy Beach. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 70(1–2), 219–226. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.03.008

[70] Mato, Y., Isobe, T., Takada, H., et al., 2001. Plastic Resin Pellets as a Transport Medium for Toxic Chemicals in the Marine Environment. Environmental Science & Technology. 35(2), 318–324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es0010498

[71] Ogata, Y., Takada, H., Mizukawa, K., et al., 2009. International Pellet Watch: Global Monitoring of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Coastal Waters. 1. Initial Phase Data on PCBs, DDTs, and HCHs. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 58(10), 1437–1446. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.014

[72] Colabuono, F.I., Taniguchi, S., Montone, R.C., 2010. Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides in Plastics Ingested by Seabirds. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 60(4), 630–634. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.01.018

[73] Mohsen, M., Wang, Q., Zhang, L., et al., 2019. Heavy Metals in Sediment, Microplastic and Sea Cucumber Apostichopus Japonicus from Farms in China. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 143, 42–49. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.04.025

[74] Munier, B., Bendell, L.I., 2018. Macro and Micro Plastics Sorb and Desorb Metals and Act as a Point Source of Trace Metals to Coastal Ecosystems. PLOS ONE. 13(2), e0191759. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191759

[75] Galloway, T.S., Cole, M., Lewis, C., 2017. Interactions of Microplastic Debris Throughout the Marine Ecosystem. Nature Ecology & Evolution. 1(5), 0116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0116

[76] Rochman, C.M., 2016. Strategies for Reducing Ocean Plastic Debris Should Be Diverse and Guided by Science. Environmental Research Letters. 11(4), 041001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/041001

[77] Wu, M., Yang, C., Du, C., et al., 2020. Microplastics in Waters and Soils: Occurrence, Analytical Methods and Ecotoxicological Effects. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 202, 110910. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110910

[78] Thushari, G.G.N., Senevirathna, J.D.M., 2020. Plastic Pollution in the Marine Environment. Heliyon. 6(8), e04709. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709

[79] Li, J., Song, Y., Cai, Y., 2020. Focus Topics on Microplastics in Soil: Analytical Methods, Occurrence, Transport, and Ecological Risks. Environmental Pollution. 257, 113570. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113570

[80] Rochman, C.M., Kurobe, T., Flores, I., et al., 2014. Early Warning Signs of Endocrine Disruption in Adult Fish from the Ingestion of Polyethylene with and Without Sorbed Chemical Pollutants from the Marine Environment. Science of The Total Environment. 493, 656–661. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.051

[81] AshaRani, P.V., Low Kah Mun, G., Hande, M.P., et al., 2009. Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles in Human Cells. ACS Nano. 3(2), 279–290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/nn800596w

[82] Collard, F., Gilbert, B., Eppe, G., et al., 2015. Detection of Anthropogenic Particles in Fish Stomachs: An Isolation Method Adapted to Identification by Raman Spectroscopy. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 69(3), 331–339. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0221-0

[83] Campbell, S.H., Williamson, P.R., Hall, B.D., 2017. Microplastics in the Gastrointestinal Tracts of Fish and the Water from an Urban Prairie Creek. FACETS. 2, 395–409. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0008

[84] Amaneesh, C., Balan, S.A., Silpa, P.S., et al., 2023. Gross Negligence: Impacts of Microplastics and Plastic Leachates on Phytoplankton Community and Ecosystem Dynamics. Environmental Science & Technology. 57(1), 5–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c05817

[85] Issac, M.N., Kandasubramanian, B., 2021. Effect of Microplastics in Water and Aquatic Systems. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28(16), 19544–19562. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13184-2

[86] Ibrahim, D., Froberg, B., Wolf, A., et al., 2006. Heavy Metal Poisoning: Clinical Presentations and Pathophysiology. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine. 26(1), 67–97. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cll.2006.02.003

[87] Fergusson, J.E., 1990. The Heavy Elements: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects. Pergamon Press: Oxford, UK.

[88] Bwala, M.N., Imam, T.S., 2021. Fish Smoking, Preservation and Socio-Economic Characteristics of Fish Smokers and Traders in Selected Fish Markets in Borno State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Fisheries. 18 (2), 2346–2354. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359894475_FISH_SMOKING_PRESERVATION_AND_SOCIO-ECONOMIC_CHARACTERISTICS_OF_FISH_SMOKERS_AND_TRADERS_IN_SELECTED_FISH_MARKETS_IN_BORNO_STATE_NIGERIA

[89] Bwala, M.N., 2021. The Impact of Irrigational Activities on the Abundance and Distribution of Cat Fish (Clarias gariepinus) in River Ngadda, Maiduguri, Borno State. Nigerian Journal of Science & Research. 2(1), 7–12. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353759908_The_Impact_of_Irrigational_Activities_on_the_Abundance_and_Distribution_of_Cat_Fish_Clarias_gariepinus_in_River_Ngadda_Maiduguri_Borno_State

[90] Bwala, M.N., 2021. Impact of Nonpoint Source Pollutant on Fish Biodiversity in River Ngadda, Maiduguri – Borno State. Nigerian Journal of Pure & Applied Sciences. 34(1), 3631–3640. Available from: https://njpas.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/NJPAS-20-B04.pdf

[91] Duffus, J.H., 2002. “Heavy metals” a meaningless term? (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 74(5), 793–807. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200274050793

[92] Andrady, A.L., 2011. Microplastics in the Marine Environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 62(8), 1596–1605. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.030

Downloads

Issue

Vol. 3 No. 1 (January 2026): In Progress

Section

Review

License

Copyright (c) 2026 Food and Drug Safety

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.